THERMODYNAMICS
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| Thermodynamics is the branch of science which deals with the interconversion of heat energy and mechanical energy. All those problems that are related to the interconversion of heat energy and work done are studied in thermodynamics. In thermodynamics we discuss different cycles such as Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle, Otto cycle, diesel cycle, refrigerator, IC engines, EC engines, Compressors, turbines and air conditioners. | ||
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FIRST
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
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STATEMENT:
"During any process total energy of a system and its surroundings is constant." OR "It is impossible to construct a machine which performs work continuously with taking energy from an external source." OR "Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but it can be converted from one form of energy to another form of energy." |
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MATHEMATICAL
REPRESENTATION
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| Let
a system absorbs DQ amount of heat
energy. Addition of heat energy increases the internal energy of system
from U1 to U2 and some useful work is also performed
by the system. Increase in internal energy is given by: DU = U1 – U2 and work done is DW According to the first law of thermodynamics: DQ = DU+ DW SIGN CONVENTION: DQ = positive if heat is added to a system DQ = negative if heat is released from a system DW = positive if work is done by the system DW = negative if work is done on the system |
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APPLICATIONS
OF THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
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Heat
can be supplied to a thermodynamic system under the following conditions: ISOBARIC
PROCESS ISOCHORIC
PROCESS ISOTHERMAL
PROCESS ADIABATIC
PROCESS |
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ISOBARIC
PROCESS
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| A thermodynamic process in which pressure of the system remains constant during the supply of heat is called an ISOBARIC PROCESS. | ||
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EXPLANATION
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| Consider a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston. The piston is free to move in the cylinder. An ideal gas is enclosed in the cylinder. | ||
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Let
the initial volume of the
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system is V1 and initial internal energy is U1. Let DQP the gas is heated from | |
| T1 K to T2 K. Addition of heat causes the following changes in the system: | ||
Internal energy increases from U1 to U2. Volume
of the system increases from V1 to V2. Temperature
increases from T1 K to T2 K. Work (DW)
is done by the gas on the piston. |
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According
to the first law of
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thermodynamics: | |
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DQ
= DU+ DW
But DW = PDV Thus DQP = DU+ PDV As DV = (V2 - V1) DQP = DU+ P (V2 - V1) |
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GRAPHICAL
REPRESENTATION
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| Graph between P & V for an isobaric process is a straight line which is parallel to V-axis. | ||
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| For latest information , free computer courses and high impact notes visit : www.citycollegiate.com | ||
mercoledì 25 luglio 2012
THERMODYNAMICS
FOSSIL FUELS / ENERGY CRISIS
Children nowadays take energy for granted. Could you image having to
come home from school and to chop wood for dinner or to keep warm? If
you have you know how monotonous and boring the experience is. In my
report I will be discussing the most important discovery, known to man,
fossil fuels , and changing them into energy. Some people may disagree
with my last statement saying that fossil fuel are terrible and have
destroyed our environment. In my report I will give you an analysis of
both points of view. I will also suggest some things we as a community
can do to cut down the pollution from these fuels.
COAL
You may be asking yourself, where does coal come from? Coal is the remains of dead plants and animals becoming fossilized and over millions of years they decompose and through great pressure and high temperature these fossils change to coal.
Coal makes up approximately 28% of the worlds total energy needs, and is consumed at an alarming rate with nearly 1 million tons of black coal burnt in Australia in one day, and is worth about $5 billion annually just to Australia. But coal is unrenewable an it is predicted the worlds coal reserves would be gone within the next 40-50 years.
Coal is one of the most important discoveries know to man, as I mentioned before. Coal basically started the industrial revolution, in which created the whole way of life as we know it now. Light in our homes, refrigerators to keep our food fresh and ovens to cook our food are all came indirectly from the discovery of coal.
Shaft mining for Black Coal, in Newcastle, NSW.
OIL
Oil is formed a lot like coal except coal is found on land and oil is mainly found in the ocean. Oil forms from dead plant and animal life drifting to the bottom of the ocean and it there is covered with sand and sediment material. Over thousands of years due to high temperature and pressure these fossils form oil.
Oil is mainly used in developed western countries such as Australia, Canada, USA and some European Countries, who mainly use oil for energy and fuel for automobiles. Oil is a precious commodity and it is very expensive. It is believed that the worlds oil reserves will run out within the next 40-50 years. Oil is so valuable that is was the main reason why the Gulf War began. As it is so expensive underdeveloped countries can sometimes not afford it even though they desperately need it for transport, which stops their countries growth.
Oil ships can carry up to 500 000 tons of oil. So as you can image if one of these ships started to leak it would have a serious detrimental effect on the environment. Oil spills can cover a massive area. For example in 1989 the Exxon Valdez oil spill Alaska covered 13.5kms by 6.5kms. It took a long time for this region to recover. To prevent oil spills, I feel oil companies must be so accurate that every part of the tanker is leak proof. There should also have a clean up crew ready if there is a oil spill.
A clean up patrol, after a large oil spill in the Pacific Ocean
ENVIRONMENTAL & SOCIAL PROBLEMS
When oil and coal is burnt they emit huge amounts of carbon dioxide and other harmful gases, that have a negative effect on the environment, like sulfur dioxide. Carbon dioxide traps in the sunlight as it only lets light in, it does not allow it to leave the atmosphere which causes temperatures to rise. If temperatures are too hot it is terrible for children and elderly people who find it hard to cope with hot conditions.
To stop the green house effect we must find alternative transport. Did you know that for every liter of petrol used 3 kilograms of carbon dioxide is released into the air. If you multiply that that by the average amount of petrol a car uses in a lifetime and multiply that by the number of cars that have been on the streets you have a lot of Carbon dioxide in the air.
Coal and Oil also let off sulfur dioxide which mixes with the moisture and clouds in the air and forms sulfuric acid. The sulfuric acid is know as acid rain as when it falls it causes forests, vegetation and crops to die, which upsets the equilibrium of many ecosystems. Acid rain occurs in Australia but is not as bad as in Europe where some of he most beautiful forests in the world are dying as a result of acid rain.
With these effects in mind and the fact that fossil fuels are predicted to run out within the next 40-50 years it is essential that we find alternative and renewable energy sources. I will now give you some information about the three main renewable resources which may be the answer to our energy crisis.
ENERGY FROM WATER
Water energy was first pioneered by the Greeks and Romans from 300 B.C They used waterwheels to grind seeds to make flour. During the industrial revolution water wheels were used in the textile industry and in Australia waterwheels where used in the early 20th century in the production of gold.
Energy which comes from water is called hydro-electricity. Hydro electricity is becoming a prominent figure in the worlds energy source's. Brazil obtains 92% of it's power from hydro electricity. Australia only has 15% but is regarded to have one of the great hydro electricity systems in the world in Tasmania called the Snowy Mountain Scheme.
Although hydro electricity is an excellent source of energy it sill has some side effects. To set up a hydro electricity center you must clear a lot of vegetation which upsets ecosystems. This is the main reason why it has not been further developed in Australia but hopefully we can use our wide open spaces so this effect is non-existent.
WIND ENERGY
Wind energy believe it or not has been around for centuries. Wind was used by early explorers to assist them on there great exhibitions. Also it is believed that windmills were existent in China as long ago as 2000 B.C . Windmills were also used in Europe during the 10th century.
As Australia is so big it is hard to get electricity to all parts. That's why wind power is vitally important to Australians, especially farmers. Wind energy is also very cheap to get.
Wind energy is a renewable energy source and the more wind energy used the less burning off of fossil fuels. Wind power have two side effects though. Wind generators give off a low frequency sound which shakes objects in near by homes. Also wind generators affect radio and television reception. Even though it has minor disadvantages wind power is still and excellent alternative to fossil fuels
A huge Wind Farm in southern USA.
SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy is the most advanced form of energy out of all the renewable energy sources. It is believed by many to be the best alternative energy source for the future. It involves no side effects to the environment.
Appoximentley 25% of all households in W.A have solar powered hot water which is a very incorrigible statistic. Solar hot water systems work by solar panels absorbing light from the sun which intensifies and heats up water in pipes behind the panel. This water is then transported to places where it is needed.
Solar power I feel is really the future of electricity as it has no side effects. Right now it solar power is still fairly expensive but as the price of fossil fuels go up because of the scarcity of the product and the price of solar power drops due to technological advances means that most Australia home will sooner or later have solar power. I think our goal should be 75% of all houses in Australia to have solar power by 2020 which is a reasonable expectation.
Solar Collectors, at a solar power station in California, USA.
You may be asking yourself, where does coal come from? Coal is the remains of dead plants and animals becoming fossilized and over millions of years they decompose and through great pressure and high temperature these fossils change to coal.
Coal makes up approximately 28% of the worlds total energy needs, and is consumed at an alarming rate with nearly 1 million tons of black coal burnt in Australia in one day, and is worth about $5 billion annually just to Australia. But coal is unrenewable an it is predicted the worlds coal reserves would be gone within the next 40-50 years.
Coal is one of the most important discoveries know to man, as I mentioned before. Coal basically started the industrial revolution, in which created the whole way of life as we know it now. Light in our homes, refrigerators to keep our food fresh and ovens to cook our food are all came indirectly from the discovery of coal.
Shaft mining for Black Coal, in Newcastle, NSW.
Oil is formed a lot like coal except coal is found on land and oil is mainly found in the ocean. Oil forms from dead plant and animal life drifting to the bottom of the ocean and it there is covered with sand and sediment material. Over thousands of years due to high temperature and pressure these fossils form oil.
Oil is mainly used in developed western countries such as Australia, Canada, USA and some European Countries, who mainly use oil for energy and fuel for automobiles. Oil is a precious commodity and it is very expensive. It is believed that the worlds oil reserves will run out within the next 40-50 years. Oil is so valuable that is was the main reason why the Gulf War began. As it is so expensive underdeveloped countries can sometimes not afford it even though they desperately need it for transport, which stops their countries growth.
Oil ships can carry up to 500 000 tons of oil. So as you can image if one of these ships started to leak it would have a serious detrimental effect on the environment. Oil spills can cover a massive area. For example in 1989 the Exxon Valdez oil spill Alaska covered 13.5kms by 6.5kms. It took a long time for this region to recover. To prevent oil spills, I feel oil companies must be so accurate that every part of the tanker is leak proof. There should also have a clean up crew ready if there is a oil spill.
A clean up patrol, after a large oil spill in the Pacific Ocean
When oil and coal is burnt they emit huge amounts of carbon dioxide and other harmful gases, that have a negative effect on the environment, like sulfur dioxide. Carbon dioxide traps in the sunlight as it only lets light in, it does not allow it to leave the atmosphere which causes temperatures to rise. If temperatures are too hot it is terrible for children and elderly people who find it hard to cope with hot conditions.
To stop the green house effect we must find alternative transport. Did you know that for every liter of petrol used 3 kilograms of carbon dioxide is released into the air. If you multiply that that by the average amount of petrol a car uses in a lifetime and multiply that by the number of cars that have been on the streets you have a lot of Carbon dioxide in the air.
Coal and Oil also let off sulfur dioxide which mixes with the moisture and clouds in the air and forms sulfuric acid. The sulfuric acid is know as acid rain as when it falls it causes forests, vegetation and crops to die, which upsets the equilibrium of many ecosystems. Acid rain occurs in Australia but is not as bad as in Europe where some of he most beautiful forests in the world are dying as a result of acid rain.
With these effects in mind and the fact that fossil fuels are predicted to run out within the next 40-50 years it is essential that we find alternative and renewable energy sources. I will now give you some information about the three main renewable resources which may be the answer to our energy crisis.
Water energy was first pioneered by the Greeks and Romans from 300 B.C They used waterwheels to grind seeds to make flour. During the industrial revolution water wheels were used in the textile industry and in Australia waterwheels where used in the early 20th century in the production of gold.
Energy which comes from water is called hydro-electricity. Hydro electricity is becoming a prominent figure in the worlds energy source's. Brazil obtains 92% of it's power from hydro electricity. Australia only has 15% but is regarded to have one of the great hydro electricity systems in the world in Tasmania called the Snowy Mountain Scheme.
Although hydro electricity is an excellent source of energy it sill has some side effects. To set up a hydro electricity center you must clear a lot of vegetation which upsets ecosystems. This is the main reason why it has not been further developed in Australia but hopefully we can use our wide open spaces so this effect is non-existent.
Wind energy believe it or not has been around for centuries. Wind was used by early explorers to assist them on there great exhibitions. Also it is believed that windmills were existent in China as long ago as 2000 B.C . Windmills were also used in Europe during the 10th century.
As Australia is so big it is hard to get electricity to all parts. That's why wind power is vitally important to Australians, especially farmers. Wind energy is also very cheap to get.
Wind energy is a renewable energy source and the more wind energy used the less burning off of fossil fuels. Wind power have two side effects though. Wind generators give off a low frequency sound which shakes objects in near by homes. Also wind generators affect radio and television reception. Even though it has minor disadvantages wind power is still and excellent alternative to fossil fuels
A huge Wind Farm in southern USA.
Solar energy is the most advanced form of energy out of all the renewable energy sources. It is believed by many to be the best alternative energy source for the future. It involves no side effects to the environment.
Appoximentley 25% of all households in W.A have solar powered hot water which is a very incorrigible statistic. Solar hot water systems work by solar panels absorbing light from the sun which intensifies and heats up water in pipes behind the panel. This water is then transported to places where it is needed.
Solar power I feel is really the future of electricity as it has no side effects. Right now it solar power is still fairly expensive but as the price of fossil fuels go up because of the scarcity of the product and the price of solar power drops due to technological advances means that most Australia home will sooner or later have solar power. I think our goal should be 75% of all houses in Australia to have solar power by 2020 which is a reasonable expectation.
Solar Collectors, at a solar power station in California, USA.
Energy crisis, causes & remedies in Asia
Pakistan has been suffering from an energy crisis for about half a
decade now. The power crisis is proving to be unbearable. The sad state
of affairs is that despite having enormous renewable resources of
energy, Pakistan has to import a huge amount of hydrocarbons from abroad
to meet its energy needs. As recently as 2001, the country had 4,000
megawatts of excess power capacity. Today unfortunately the situation
has gained threatening prospects. According to a research most of the
high enthalpy geothermal resources of the world lie within the seismic
belts passing through Pakistan. Pakistan has a history of geotectonic
events. Tectonic plates are segments of earth’s lithosphere, hard rocky
outer shell. Hence this geothermal energy can be exploited in a better
sense of the term. The major resources of energy are oil, gas, petroleum
products, coal, nuclear, solar, biomass and wind energy.
Let us chalk out the reasons for shortage of energy. Lopsided priorities, poor management and lack of accountability can be denoted as the reasons for dearth of energy in Pakistan. The number of consumers of electricity are now increased owing to the rapid urbanization process. The facility of electricity is now provided to the remote villages. We waste a lot of energy, about 15 to 20 percent through poor distribution system. Industrial, transport and domestic sectors are the three important consumers of energy. It is assumed that a misplaced use of energy is rampant in industries which need to be curtailed.
Few years back Pakistan used to get half of its electricity from hydel power and remaining from thermal generation. However there is a limit to the extent of exploitation of hydel resources and thermal power plants due to environmental and other concerns. Modalities for overcoming the energy crisis are multifold. To meet the challenge there is a dire need to go to the alternate sources of energy. Some people suggest that process of converting coal into product gas underground can be a good alternate source of energy. Technically this process is called as underground coal classification. Through this the underground deposit of coal is treated with controlled fire. Gradually the coal turns into gas. The largest coal reserves of Pakistan exist in Thar. There this source can be encashed.
Besides coal, the renewable energy as biomass has solutions to our problems. Biomass, material derived from plants or animals, includes wastes, agricultural residues and garbage. It is suggested that subsidies and tax concessions must be provided for importing machinery for establishing biogas power plants in Pakistan. It can prove to be a great source of energy for us as Pakistan is an agricultural country. Come to solar energy panels, though initial cost of installing solar panels is comparatively high but through them the highest levels of efficiency can be reached. I visited Balochistan recently and was really surprised to see the great solar potential there. It is not only the valley of minerals but it has a lot of wind and solar energy, having a scattered habitat and ample sunshine. But to my utter dismay the number of solar panels installed there were very few. Some important advantages which favour the use of solar energy use in Pakistan include low operational and maintenance cost, environment friendly dimension etc.
Similarly the wind energy is also in excess and we can harness this energy in a much more effective way. Wind can be utilized to produce electricity at the coastal areas. If power plants are set up driven by the wind energy along the coastline and this venture is handed over to foreign investors, the results can be quite satisfactory. Manufacture of wind generators can be made indigenously. Still other sources apart from hydel and thermal which can meet the growing demand nuclear energy can also overcome the energy needs. Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission has developed a large infrastructure to manufacture equipment for power but even then we are not able to make considerable progress in the nuclear field.
More and more nuclear reactors for power generation must be built. Similarly, hot climatic conditions of some areas of upper Sindh and Southern Punjab may prove to be a source of solar energy. We have to devise bold and concrete ways on a war footing to overcome the electricity deficit coupled with an instant change in attitude at the earliest. The Quaid-i-Azam said: “Let us mobilize all our resources in a systematic and organized way and tackle the grave issues that confront us with grim determination and discipline worthy of a great nation.” Therefore the consolidation of the domestic resource mobilization is a call of the time. A collective national effort is needed to face the challenge .Prompt measures need to be taken by the government. The belated response will only add up to more problems.
One other suggestion is that the existing thermal power plants running on expensive imported furnace oil can be converted into natural gas and afterwards to coal. The government can go for establishing a government body for fixing targets for development of power sectors. Ways must also be devised to stop power theft besides transmission and distribution losses. The long transmission lines connecting grid with hydel stations are faced with transmission losses. These hydel stations are located mostly in the north of the country while thermal units are mainly installed in the centre and southern areas of Pakistan.
Political controversies relating to Kalabagh dam must be resolved. In this connection seminars and media can play a good role. If there is a need the modifications in design may also be suggested.
this article original post by
Shanzeh Iqbal
Let us chalk out the reasons for shortage of energy. Lopsided priorities, poor management and lack of accountability can be denoted as the reasons for dearth of energy in Pakistan. The number of consumers of electricity are now increased owing to the rapid urbanization process. The facility of electricity is now provided to the remote villages. We waste a lot of energy, about 15 to 20 percent through poor distribution system. Industrial, transport and domestic sectors are the three important consumers of energy. It is assumed that a misplaced use of energy is rampant in industries which need to be curtailed.
Few years back Pakistan used to get half of its electricity from hydel power and remaining from thermal generation. However there is a limit to the extent of exploitation of hydel resources and thermal power plants due to environmental and other concerns. Modalities for overcoming the energy crisis are multifold. To meet the challenge there is a dire need to go to the alternate sources of energy. Some people suggest that process of converting coal into product gas underground can be a good alternate source of energy. Technically this process is called as underground coal classification. Through this the underground deposit of coal is treated with controlled fire. Gradually the coal turns into gas. The largest coal reserves of Pakistan exist in Thar. There this source can be encashed.
Besides coal, the renewable energy as biomass has solutions to our problems. Biomass, material derived from plants or animals, includes wastes, agricultural residues and garbage. It is suggested that subsidies and tax concessions must be provided for importing machinery for establishing biogas power plants in Pakistan. It can prove to be a great source of energy for us as Pakistan is an agricultural country. Come to solar energy panels, though initial cost of installing solar panels is comparatively high but through them the highest levels of efficiency can be reached. I visited Balochistan recently and was really surprised to see the great solar potential there. It is not only the valley of minerals but it has a lot of wind and solar energy, having a scattered habitat and ample sunshine. But to my utter dismay the number of solar panels installed there were very few. Some important advantages which favour the use of solar energy use in Pakistan include low operational and maintenance cost, environment friendly dimension etc.
Similarly the wind energy is also in excess and we can harness this energy in a much more effective way. Wind can be utilized to produce electricity at the coastal areas. If power plants are set up driven by the wind energy along the coastline and this venture is handed over to foreign investors, the results can be quite satisfactory. Manufacture of wind generators can be made indigenously. Still other sources apart from hydel and thermal which can meet the growing demand nuclear energy can also overcome the energy needs. Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission has developed a large infrastructure to manufacture equipment for power but even then we are not able to make considerable progress in the nuclear field.
More and more nuclear reactors for power generation must be built. Similarly, hot climatic conditions of some areas of upper Sindh and Southern Punjab may prove to be a source of solar energy. We have to devise bold and concrete ways on a war footing to overcome the electricity deficit coupled with an instant change in attitude at the earliest. The Quaid-i-Azam said: “Let us mobilize all our resources in a systematic and organized way and tackle the grave issues that confront us with grim determination and discipline worthy of a great nation.” Therefore the consolidation of the domestic resource mobilization is a call of the time. A collective national effort is needed to face the challenge .Prompt measures need to be taken by the government. The belated response will only add up to more problems.
One other suggestion is that the existing thermal power plants running on expensive imported furnace oil can be converted into natural gas and afterwards to coal. The government can go for establishing a government body for fixing targets for development of power sectors. Ways must also be devised to stop power theft besides transmission and distribution losses. The long transmission lines connecting grid with hydel stations are faced with transmission losses. These hydel stations are located mostly in the north of the country while thermal units are mainly installed in the centre and southern areas of Pakistan.
Political controversies relating to Kalabagh dam must be resolved. In this connection seminars and media can play a good role. If there is a need the modifications in design may also be suggested.
this article original post by
Shanzeh Iqbal
martedì 29 maggio 2012
energy corridors
Introduzione
The objective of the report is the optimization of the primary energy supply chain to the region Hungary, through its energy corridors. The resources considered for the analysis are fossil fuels, in particular:
coal,
crude oil,
natural gas.
Using suitable databases, for each commodity it has been constructed the path from the country of extraction to Hungary. The analysis of each corridor represented as a RES (Reference Energy System) returned an Output cost of the commodity, which takes into account the extraction, the transport and the existing infrastructures. Finally, using the Excel Solver, it has been found the optimal configuration of the system, for different objective and different scenarios.
Definition of corridors
Hungary imports commodities by train, ships and pipelines; energy corridors are hence formed by the different transport systems. Coal is transported via train and ship, while gas and oil are transported via pipelines.
The following table shows all the energy corridors that supplied Hungary in 2005, reference year for all the further calculations. The most significant characteristics has been specified in the table:
Country of origin, where the resource is extracted;
Corridor code, as defined in the EU database;
Commodity transported;
Activity [PJ/y], is the total energy transported in 2005 in each corridor;
Total length [km], is the sum of all kilometers covered, per transport mean;
Risk index [%], it associates a value of risk to a country (of origin or a region crossed by the transport system), and it’s assessed as a single average of the socio political, intrinsic energy, political institutional and economy driven risks. The value goes from 0 to 100: the lower the index, the safer the supply.
Often the risk associated to the big trans European pipelines is connected to the risk of the most “dangerous” country crossed by the pipes; that means that a single “weakest link” could damage the entire supply chain, even if characterized by low risk countries. The impossibility of substitute some main corridors entails sometimes an acceptability of the risk itself.
It can be easily noticed that corridors length are very different, as well as quantities extracted, so it would be expected a huge variations of transport cost.
Country of origin Region Corridor Commodity Activity Total length [km] Risk index
[PJ/y] Train Ship Pipeline [%]
South Africa Hungary HC_SUP_01_13_D Coal 21,9 1400 16300 41,1
Colombia Hungary HC_SUP_03_13_D Coal 44,9 1100 11230 44,9
USA Hungary HC_SUP_04_13_D Coal 30,4 2800 10150 25,0
Azerbaijan Hungary NG_SUP_044_08_A_AZJ Natural gas 200,0 3464 48,9
Egypt Hungary NG_SUP_044_08_A_EGY Natural gas 100,0 3576 52,0
Iran Hungary NG_SUP_044_08_A_IRN1 Natural gas 80,0 5121 55,4
Iraq Hungary NG_SUP_044_08_A_IRQ Natural gas 100,0 3248 72,9
Kazakhstan Hungary NG_SUP_053_01_B_KAZ Natural gas 100,0 2393 43,3
Russia Hungary NG_SUP_053_01_B_RUS1 Natural gas 56,4 3773 39,0
Russia Hungary NG_SUP_053_01_B_RUS3 Natural gas 18,5 3803 39,0
Russia Hungary NG_SUP_053_01_B_RUS4 Natural gas 252,5 2589 39,0
Kazakhstan Hungary OIL_SUP_017_07_C2B_KAZ5 Crude oil 150,0 4288 43,3
Russia Hungary OIL_SUP_017_07_C2B_RUS1 Crude oil 120,0 4333 39,0
Table 1. Hungary energy corridors (2005)
Transport typologies
Ships
Hungary doesn’t overlook the sea, so it doesn’t have a port. However the nearest port is in Constanta (Romania), which is about 800 km from Hungary borders and has a very developed maritime transport system. Ships arrive at Constanta Port to the Black sea and the Mediterranean sea, which is connected to Atlantic ocean through Gibraltar strait and to Red sea and Indian ocean through Suez Canal.
To assess the cost of open sea routes we’ve hypothesized the characteristics of the ships, with a medium carrying capacity without considering the model of the ship. The table below shows the data used for reference.
Table 2. Data for open sea routes cost assessment
The total output cost could be estimated through the following procedure:
Each full trip performed by a defined tanker requires the time A [d/trip] = 2 x L/ vel + l-unl + ch-p
A [d/trip] = (2 * length [km/trip]/ tanker velocity [km/d]) + load/unload days per trip [d/trip] + choke points delay days per trip [d/trip]
Available time in a full year for travelling: B [d/y] = 365 – MT [d/y] (yearly maintenance time)
Number of trips that the tanker can perform in a year: C = B / A [trip/y]
Commodity supplied by a tanker each year: D [Mt/y/tanker] = C [trip/y] x dwt [Mt/trip/tanker]
Number of tankers needed for the activity ACT [Mt/y]: N [tanker] = ACT / D
Capacity of the corridor: CAP [Mt/y] = N[tanker] x D [Mt/y/tanker]
Capital Cost CC [M€] of the corridor CC = N [tanker] x TC [M€/tanker] (tanker cost)
INVCOST [M€/(Mt/y)]: CC [M€] / CAP [Mt/y]
FIXOM [(M€/y)/(Mt/y)] can be evaluated assuming standard personnel cost plus insurance cost plus planned maintenance cost (generally, all figures are related to the dwt).
The full length travelled by all the tankers in a year is: Ltot [km/y] = N x 2 x L
It can be used for fuel consumption and emission evaluations, (alternatively, it is possible to refer to the full working time (on sea + at port)).
Then the Total output cost will be:
Where CRF (Capital Recovery Factor) is:
DR = Discount Rate
Capacity and Activity are in [Mt/y] for the considered corridor, Input cost is the cost of the fuel plus the extraction cost, INVCOST is the Investment cost for the ships fleet [M€/(Mt/y)], FIXOM is the fixed annual cost [M€/y] and VAROM is the variable cost for ship [M€/y].
Particular attention must be paid to the ch-p time, that is the delay due to the choke points on the route. The choke points can be individuated through the REACCESS map, shown below.
cost of electricity
Introduction
In the first part of this report we want to evaluate the electricity cost for different technology power plants, form the reference country Germany. In the second part we will use the linear programming approach in order to minimize the total activity cost of the electricity generation and find the optimal configuration of the different energy production technologies.
First part
The data used in order to calculate the cost of electricity for different of technologies are extracted by the IEA/NEA document “Projected Costs of Generating Electricity” (update 2005). This document presents and analyses projected costs of generating electricity calculated with input data provided by participating experts and generic assumptions adopted by the Group. The leveled lifetime cost methodology was applied by the joint IEA/NEA Secretariat to estimate generation costs for more than a hundred plants relying on various fuels and technologies, including coal-fired, gas-fired, nuclear, hydro, solar and wind power plants.
The reference country for the analysis is Germany. Moreover we analyzed the cost of producing electricity by Concentrating Solar Power (in this case, data of Desertec Project document has been used).
Methodology
We evaluated the full cost of electricity produced simply by summing up the investment cost, the operability and maintenance cost (O&M) and the input cost (fuel cost).
The Investment cost and the FIXOM cost are related to the size of the plant, so to its capacity.
The VAROM costs and the fuel cost are related to the operation of the power plant, so to its activity.
The total activity cost [M$/y] will be given by:
Dividing by the Activity we obtain the specific activity cost [M$/MWh] which we are interested in:
Where the availability is the number of hours of operation of the plant over the total hours in one year.
Because of the difficulties in the evaluation of the variable costs we decided to neglect that term in our calculations.
Calculations and results
The results obtained for German fossil fuels and nuclear power plants are shown in the following tables and figures.
Figure 1. Specific activity cost for fossil fuels and nuclear power plants [$/MWh]
Coal Nuclear IGCC CCGT
Investment 10,17 14,09 10,17 3,91
O&M 6,72 8,73 12,37 4,69
Fuel 9,12 12,92 14,54 40,24
Total 26,01 35,73 37,09 48,84
Table 1. Specific activity cost for fossil fuels plants and nuclear [$/MWh]
Coal-fired generating technologies
As reported in the IEA document, most coal-fired power plants have specific overnight construction costs ranging between 1000 and 1500 $/kWe. For German power plants it is equal to 1300 $/kWe for the lignite Pulverized Coal plant (PC), and a little bit higher in the case of the Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle plant (IGCC). Construction times are around four years for most plants. The fuel prices (coal, brown coal or lignite) assumed by respondents during the economic lifetime of the plants vary widely from country to country. Expressed in the same currency using official exchange rates, the coal prices in 2010 vary by a factor of twenty. Roughly half of the responses indicate price escalation during the economic lifetime of the plant while the other half indicates price stability.
At 5% discount rate, leveled generation costs range between 25 and 50 $/MWh for most coal-fired power plants. Generally, investment costs represent slightly more than a third of the total, while O&M costs account for some 20% and fuel for some 45%.
Gas-fired generating technologies
For the gas-fired power plants the specific overnight construction costs in most cases ranges between 400 and 800 $/kWe. In our case (Combined Cycle Gas Turbine) it is equal to 500 $/kWe. In all countries, the construction costs of gas-fired plants are lower than those of coal-fired and nuclear power plants. Gas-fired power plants are built rapidly and in most cases expenditures are spread over two to three years. The O&M costs of gas-fired power plants are significantly lower than those of coal-fired or nuclear power plants.
At a 5% discount rate, the leveled costs of generating electricity from gas-fired power plants vary between 37 and 60 $/MWh but in most cases it is lower than 55 $/MWh. The investment cost represents less than 15% of total leveled costs; while O&M cost accounts for less than 10% in most cases. Fuel cost represents on average nearly 80% of the total leveled cost and up to nearly 90% in some cases.
Nuclear generating technologies
For the nuclear power plants the specific overnight investment costs, not including refurbishment or decommissioning, vary between 1000 and 2000 $/kWe for most plants. In our case it amounts to 1800 $/kWe. The total leveled investment costs calculated in the study include refurbishment and decommissioning costs and interest during construction. For the different countries considered in the IEA document, the total expense period ranges from five to ten years. In nearly all countries 90% or more of the expenses are incurred within five years or less.
At a 5% discount rate, the leveled costs of nuclear electricity generation ranges between 21 and 31 $/MWh. Investment costs represent the largest share of total leveled costs, around 50% on average, while O&M costs represent around 30% and fuel cycle costs around 20%.
local energy planning
Course: “Models and scenarios for energy planning”
Academic year 2010/11
LOCAL ENERGY SYSTEM - LIBYA
Student: Abdalla Benyeza.
Matricola: 165020
Professor:Evasio Lavagno
List of Contents page
1 Essential Geo-Political Features 2
2 Libya Economy 6
3 Energy Situation of Libya 8
3.1 Oil 8
3.1.1 Oil Production 10
3.1.2 Oil Export 11
3.1.3 Oil Refining 12
3.1.4 Sector Organization 13
3.2 Natural gas 13
3.2.1 Natural Gas Production 14
3.2.2 Consumption and Exports of Natural Gas 15
3.2.3 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) 15
3.2.4 Sector Organization 16
3.3 Renewable Resource 16
3.3.1 Wind Energy in Libya 16
3.3.2 Solar radiation 17
3.3.3 Water 18
3.3.4 Photovoltaic 21
3.4 Other Sources 22
3.5 Nuclear Power 22
3.6 Electricity 24
3.7 Environment 26
4 Summary and Conclusion 27
5 References 30
1
1.Essential Geo-Political Features
Libya is fourth in size among the countries of Africa and seventeenth among the countries of the world With an area of almost 1,800,000 square kilometres (700,000 sq mi). Libya stretches along the northeast coast of Africa between Tunisia and Algeria on the west and Egypt on the east; to the south are the Sudan, Chad, and Niger. It is one-sixth larger than Alaska. Much of the country lies within the Sahara. Along the Mediterranean cost and farther inland is arable plateau land.
It lay within easy reach of the major European nations and linked the Arab countries of North Africa with those of the Middle East, facts that throughout history had made its urban centers bustling crossroads rather than isolated backwaters without external social influences. Consequently, an immense social gap developed between the cities, cosmopolitan and peopled largely by foreigners, and the desert hinterland, where tribal chieftains ruled in isolation and where social change was minimal.
The capital, Tripoli, is home to 1.7 million of Libya's 6.4 million people and Official language is Arabic.
Figure (1) :Map of Libya in the World
2
The name Libya was resuscitated in 1903 by the Italian geographer Federico Minutilli, who in 1903 used it as first in today's meaning in his work "Bibliografia della Libia", and later adopted by the Italian government in its "Regio Decreto di Annessione" (Royal Decree of Annexation) of the Ottoman provinces of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica dating November 5, 1911.
From 1912 to 1927, the territory of Libya was known as Italian North Africa. From 1927 to 1934, the territory was split into two colonies, Italian Cyrenaica and Italian Tripolitania, run by Italian governors. Some 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, constituting roughly 20% of the total population.
In 1934, Italy adopted the name "Libya" (used by the Greeks for all of North Africa, except Egypt) as the official name of the colony (made up of the three provinces of Cyrenaica,Tripolitania and Fezzan). Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later King Idris I), Emir of Cyrenaica, led Libyan resistance to Italian occupation between the two world wars. Ilan Pappé estimates that between 1928 and 1932 the Italian military "killed half the Bedouin population (directly or through starvation in camps). Italian historian Gentile sets to about fifty thousands the number of victims of the repression.
From 1943 to 1951, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica were under British administration, while the French controlled Fezzan. In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal of some aspects of foreign control in 1947. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treatywith the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya.
On December 24, 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya, a constitutional and hereditary monarchy under King Idris, Libya's first and only monarch.
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